© Borgis - New Medicine 1/2006, s. 19-25
Maria Nowak
Factors determining physical fitness self-evaluation and health self-evaluation in physically active women
Faculty of Physical Culture in Gorzów Wlkp. of the University School of Physical Education in Poznań, Poznań, Poland
Head: Maciej Tybiszewski MD, PhD
Summary
SUMMARY
Introduction: The beneficial effects of moderate physical activity on people´s physical fitness and health have been proved repeatedly in scientific research. Physical activity also influences physical fitness self-evaluation and health self-evaluation.
The aim of the work was to find factors determining self-evaluation of physical fitness and health in women engaging in systematic exercise.
Material and method: Research concerning physical activity and lifestyle was conducted among 1413 physically active adult females, residents of cities located in western Poland. Information used in the present analysis was obtained by means of an anonymous survey from 1003 women who had been exercising for at least one year. There were 289 subjects who had been exercising for 1 year, 274 subjects for 2-3 years, 196 subjects for 4-6 years and 244 subjects for 7 or more years. A statistical analysis of the results was conducted by means of Statistica 6.0 software, using an independence test in contingency tables as well as multiple correspondence analysis.
Results: Subjects with 4-6 and 7 plus years of exercise history more often evaluated their physical fitness level as high (28% and 40.8% respectively) and their health as very good (23.7% and 29.9%). Those who had previously participated in out-of-class or out-of-school sporting activities and been involved in sports at competition level reported high physical fitness self-evaluation (57.5% and 22.3%). ´Very good´ self-evaluation of health was associated with previous participation in out-of-class and out-of-school sporting activities (52.3%). Physically active women under 50 years of age with a post-secondary education and a very good material situation rated their physical fitness level as high and their health as very good.
Conclusions: There is a need for promotion of physical activity among sedentary adults and the creation of exercise programmes available for women, with their ages, material situations, family situations and diverse needs and motor abilities taken into account.
Introduction
The beneficial effects of moderate physical activity on people´s physical fitness and health have been proved repeatedly in scientific research [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. Physical activity also influences physical fitness self-evaluation and health self-evaluation. Positive self-evaluation fosters health, provides individuals with a considerable degree of independence and increases their freedom in undertaking and carrying out difficult tasks [6].
In several studies of physically passive and active adults, the method of self-evaluation of physical fitness and health [7, 8] or only self-evaluation of health [9, 10, 11, 12] was employed. It was found that self-evaluation was influenced by socio-demographic factors, including age, sex, marital status, material situation, education [11, 13, 14], current engagement in exercise [7, 8, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17], as well as past physical activity [17, 18, 19]. Analyses concerning factors determining physical fitness self-evaluation and health self-evaluation in women engaging in systematic exercise in organized groups for several years were not found in available literature. Showing connections between physical activity and self-evaluation of physical fitness and health may contribute to the promotion of physical activity among sedentary women.
The aim of the work was to find factors determining physical fitness self-evaluation and health self-evaluation in women who systematically exercise.
Material and method
Research concerning physical activity and lifestyle was conducted among 1413 physically active adult females engaging in systematic group exercise directed by sports instructors. The respondents were residents of cities located in western Poland: Szczecin, Gorzów Wlkp., Zielona Góra, Poznań, Wrocław. Information used in the present analysis was obtained by means of an anonymous survey of 1003 women who had been exercising for at least one year. While the research was being conducted, the respondents were present at and participated in physical exercise sessions. The questions selected for the survey concerned personal data, problems connected with current physical activity, involvement in sports in the past, physical fitness self-evaluation and health self-evaluation. The subjects either underlined their answers among several options given or wrote down their own answers.
The length of time of each woman´s voluntary participation in physical exercise served as the basis for division of the analysed population. According to the length of physical activity (in years) the lower quartile (25th percentile), the median (50th percentile) and the upper quartile (75th percentile) were determined. There were 289 subjects who had been exercising for 1 year, 274 subjects for 2-3 years, 196 subjects for 4-6 years and 244 subjects for 7 or more years. The results are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Criteria for marking subjects´ length of physical activity.
| Percentiles (C) | Length of physical activity | Sizes of groups |
| N | % |
| 1. (0, C25) | - 1 year | 289 | 28.8 |
| 2. (C25, C50) | - 2-3 years | 274 | 27.3 |
| 3. (C50, C75) | - 4-6 years | 196 | 19.5 |
| 4. (C75,100) | - 7 plus years | 244 | 24.3 |
Statistical analysis of the results was conducted by means of Statistica 6.0 software, using an independence test in contingency tables. Pearson´s chi-square (c2) statistic was employed, with p=0.05 as the significance level. After ascertaining independence of the features/variables by means of the c2 statistic, multiple correspondence analysis was applied to enable graphical and overall presentation of the relations discussed [20]. The influence of age, marital status, education, material situation, past physical activity and the length of time the studied women had been exercising was analysed.
Results
1. Socio-demographic characteristics of analysed women in relation to length of physical activity
Characteristics of the subjects with respect to the length of their physical activity are presented in Table 2. The influence of age, marital status, education and past physical activity on current physical activity of adult females was found to be statistically significant. A sharp decrease in the number of exercisers was observed in the over-50 age group. In the group exercising for 7 or more years there were more persons over 50 and 60 years old (p=0.001). Most of the studied women were married (65.3%). It was spinsters who more often had a 1-year exercise length, whereas 7-year or longer participation was reported mainly by widows (p=0.05). The majority of physically active females had a post-secondary education (65.4%), especially those exercising for 4-6 and 7 or more years (p=0.05). Women with 7 plus years of exercise history had more often participated in out-of-class and out-of-school sporting activities in the past and been involved in sports at competition level (53.3% and 19.7% respectively). The remaining persons had less often participated in out-of-class and out-of-school activities, and more often solely in physical education classes (p=0.01). No influence of material situation on the length of physical activity was found. 90% of the women indicated they had very good material conditions.
Table 2. Socio-demographic characteristics of subjects in relation to the length of their physical activity. Results are given as percentages.
| Specification | Length of physical activity | Total | p for c2 test |
| 1 year | 2-3 years | 4-6 years | 7 plus years |
| N=289 | N=274 | N=196 | N=244 | N=1003 | % |
1. Age (in years):
- 20-29
- 30-39
- 40-49
- 50-59
- 60-75 |
23.5
28.4
22.5
12.1
13.5 |
13.1
31.0
31.0
13.1
11.8 |
15.8
20.9
31.1
14.8
17.4 |
13.1
13.9
26.3
18.4
28.3 |
167
242
275
145
174 |
16.7
24.1
27.4
14.5
17.3 | pŁ0.001 |
2. Marital status:
- spinster
- married
- widow
- divorced |
20.8
63.7
9.0
6.5 |
14.6
70.1
8.4
6.9 |
13.2
67.4
11.2
8.2 |
13.9
60.3
16.0
9.8 |
160
655
110
78 |
16.0
65.3
11.0
7.7 | pŁ0.05 |
3. Education:
- pre-secondary
- secondary
- post-secondary |
3.5
38.4
58.1 |
4.0
32.5
63.5 |
2.6
25.5
71.9 |
2.5
26.6
70.9 |
32
315
656 |
3.2
31.4
65.4 | pŁ0.05 |
4. Material situation:
- bad
- good
- very good |
11.9
50.9
37.2 |
8.3
47.7
44.0 |
7.3
54.9
37.8 |
12.1
46.2
41.7 |
98
485
393 |
10.0
49.7
40.3 | p=0.2254
insignificant |
5. Past physical activity:
- physical education classes
- out-of-class/out-of-school activities
- sport at competition level |
38.5
46.2
15.3 |
42.9
45.4
11.7 |
36.7
47.5
15.8 |
27.0
53.3
19.7 |
366
480
155 |
36.6
48.0
15.4 | pŁ0.01 |
2. Factors determining physical fitness self-evaluation
The results concerning the influence of the analysed factors on women´s physical fitness self-evaluation are presented in Table 3. The influence of age, education, material situation, past physical activity and length of current physical activity on subjects´ physical fitness self-evaluation was found to be statistically significant. Medium and high physical fitness self-evaluation was more often present among females aged 40-49 (26.1% and 30.5% respectively), while low self-evaluation was more often present in the 60-75 age group (29.7%) (p=0.01). The higher the education, the more women tended to rate their physical fitness level as high, and fewer as medium or low (p=0.01). Subjects with high physical fitness self-evaluation were characterized by a good or very good material situation (44.1% and 47.3% respectively). Those who self-evaluated their physical fitness level as low more rarely saw their material situation as very good (29.9%), but most often as bad (20.7%) (p=0.001). Females who had participated in out-of-class and out-of-school sporting activities and been involved in sports at competition level more often gave a high evaluation of their own physical fitness (57.5% and 22.3% respectively). Low physical fitness self-evaluation was expressed mainly by those who had previously participated solely in physical education classes (p=0.001). As the length of subjects´ physical activity increased, their physical fitness level was more often assessed as high and less often as low (p=0.001). Persons with 1-year exercise history more often believed their physical fitness level was low, while those with 7 or more years of participation in exercise perceived it as high (58.2% and 40.8% respectively). No influence of marital status on physical fitness self-evaluation was found.
Table 3. Influence of analysed factors on physically active women´s physical fitness self-evaluation. Results are given as percentages.
| Factors determining physical fitness self-evaluation | Physical fitness self-evaluation | p for c2 test |
| Low | Medium | High |
1. Age (in years):
- 20-29
- 30-39
- 40-49
- 50-59
- 60-75 |
14.3
15.4
27.5
13.1
29.7 |
15.2
25.4
26.1
14.9
18.4 |
20.6
24.1
30.5
13.8
11.0 | pŁ0.01 |
2. Marital status:
- spinster
- married
- widow
- divorced |
15.4
57.1
15.4
12.1 |
15.6
67.9
10.6
5.9 |
17.0
62.1
10.3
10.6 | p=0.0573 |
3. Education:
- pre-secondary
- secondary
- post-secondary |
2.2
41.8
56.0 |
3.2
33.3
63.5 |
3.6
23.9
72.7 | pŁ0.01 |
4. Material situation:
- bad
- good
- very good |
20.7
49.4
29.9 |
9.2
52.3
38.5 |
8.6
44.1
47.3 | pŁ0.001 |
5. Past physical activity:
- physical education classes
- out-of-class/out-of school activities
- sport at competition level |
62.2
31.1
6.7 |
40.2
46.1
13.7 |
20.2
57.5
22.3 | pŁ0.001 |
6. Length of physical activity:
- 1 year
- 2-3 years
- 4-6 years
- 7 plus years |
58.2
22.0
9.9
9.9 |
31.1
32.7
17.1
19.1 |
14.2
17.0
28.0
40.8 | pŁ0.001 |
3. Factors determining health self-evaluation
The results concerning the influence of the analysed factors on health self-evaluation are presented in Table 4. The influence of the subjects´ age, marital status, education, material situation, past physical activity and length of current physical activity on their health self-evaluation was found to be statistically significant. Health self-evaluation was observed to be lower with increasing age (p=0.001). Physically active women under 50 years of age rated their health as average, good or very good, while those between 60 and 75 years old most often believed it to be very poor or poor (39.1% and 42.8% respectively). Health self-evaluation was affected by marital status (p=0.001). Married women reported being in average, good or very good health (67.3%, 71.1% and 68.1% respectively), whereas widows more often assessed their health as very poor or poor (30.4% and 25.7% respectively). Post-secondary educated subjects believed their health was average, good or very good (61.9%, 63.9% and 72.9% respectively), while those with a pre-secondary education more often rated it as very poor (13%) (p=0.001). Females who enjoyed a very good material situation saw their health as average, good or very good (39%, 40% and 50% respectively). The ones who were in a bad material situation evaluated it as very poor or poor (34.8% and 21.5% respectively) (p=0.001). Being in very good health was reported by women who had previously engaged in out-of-class and out-of-school sporting activities (52.3%). Subjects who had participated solely in physical education classes more often assessed their health as very poor or poor (56.6% and 46.7% respectively) (p=0.001). Health self-evaluation was influenced by the length of subjects´ current physical activity (p=0.001). Individuals who had been exercising for 7 plus years more often believed their state of health to be very good (29.9%), similarly to those with 4-6 years of exercise history (23.7%). Females who had been engaging in exercise for 2-3 years or 1 year mainly rated their health as good (31.1% and 41.7% respectively). Those who had been exercising for 1 year more often perceived their health as very poor or poor (34.8%, 31.6%), and the least often as very good (18.8%).
Table 4. Influence of analysed factors on physically active women´s health self-evaluation. Results are given as percentages.
| Factors determining health self-evaluation | Health self-evaluation | p for c2 test |
| Very poor | Poor | Average | Good | Very good |
1. Age (in years):
- 20-29
- 30-39
- 40-49
- 50-59
- 60-75 |
4.4
17.3
4.4
34.8
39.1 |
5.3
15.1
15.8
21.0
42.8 |
6.9
22.3
30.8
16.5
23.5 |
23.3
28.3
32.3
8.3
7.8 |
25.3
27.3
28.9
12.1
6.4 | pŁ0.001 |
2. Marital status:
- spinster
- married
- widow
- divorced |
21.7
43.5
30.4
4.4 |
11.2
50.7
25.7
12.4 |
13.5
67.3
11.5
7.7 |
16.7
71.1
5.0
7.2 |
18.8
68.1
6.4
6.7 | pŁ0.001 |
3. Education:
- pre-secondary
- secondary
- post-secondary |
13.0
34.8
52.2 |
5.3
38.8
55.9 |
2.7
35.4
61.9 |
1.7
34.4
63.9 |
2.9
24.2
72.9 | pŁ0.001 |
4. Material situation:
- bad
- good
- very good |
34.8
56.5
8.7 |
21.5
55.7
22.8 |
7.6
53.4
39.0 |
7.4
52.6
40.0 |
6.9
43.1
50.0 | pŁ0.001 |
5. Past physical activity:
- physical education classes
- out-of-class/out-of-school activities
- sport at competition level |
56.6
30.4
13.0 |
46.7
42.8
10.5 |
37.4
47.9
14.7 |
41.3
45.3
13.4 |
28.6
52.3
19.1 | pŁ0.001 |
6. Length of physical activity:
- 1 year
- 2-3 years
- 4-6 years
- 7 plus years |
34.8
17.4
21.7
26.1 |
31.6
24.3
18.4
25.7 |
32.7
26.9
16.9
23.5 |
41.7
31.1
15.0
12.2 |
18.8
27.6
23.7
29.9 | pŁ0.001 |
4. Factors determining self-evaluation of physical fitness and health
The application of multiple correspondence analysis enabled comprehensive presentation of the analysed factors affecting the physically active subjects´ physical fitness self-evaluation and health self-evaluation (Fig. 1). The variables with their categories are presented on the plane. It is clear which categories lie close to one another and which are very distant. Closeness of particular categories indicates a more direct relation between them. This, in combination with the c2 independence test, makes it possible to draw more general conclusions concerning all the variables and their categories. Figure 1 is accompanied by Table 5 containing explanations of the symbols used and the values of the coordinates. The most important is the first eigenvalue, which is connected with the first dimension. The second one is connected with the second dimension; subsequent eigenvalues and dimensions are of lesser and lesser importance.
Fig. 1. Factors determining physical fitness self-evaluation and health self-evaluation in women with varied length of physical activity.
Table 5. Explanations of symbols used in Fig. 1.
| Arrangement of column coordinates (N=974) |
| Dimension 1 | Dimension 2 |
| Symbol | Explanation | Dimension 1 | Dimension 2 | Symbol | Explanation | Dimension 1 | Dimension 2 |
| 7a | Physical fitness self-evaluation: high | -0.8955 | -0.7300 | 4e | Health self-evaluation: very poor | 1.6890 | -1.2048 |
| 4a | Health self-evaluation: very good | -0.8266 | -0.2388 | 3c | Material situation: bad | 1.1458 | -1.0918 |
| 6b | Participation in out-of-class activities | -0.6243 | -0.1136 | 5d | Length of physical activity:7 plus years | -0.3390 | -1.0046 |
| 3a | Material situation: very good | -0.5155 | 0.2677 | 1e | Age: 60-75 years old | 1.0918 | -0.9574 |
| 1a | Age: 20-29 years old | -0.4291 | 0.1513 | 4d | Health self-evaluation: poor | 1.1294 | -0.7582 |
| 5d | Length of physical activity: 7 plus years | -0.3390 | -1.0046 | 7a | Physical fitness self-evaluation: high | -0.8955 | -0.7300 |
| 5c | Length of physical activity: 4-6 years | -0.3064 | -0.3085 | 1d | Age: 50-59 years old | 0.2392 | -0.6694 |
| 1b | Age: 30-3 years old | -0.2985 | 0.6298 | 2a | Education: pre-secondary | 0.5512 | -0.6543 |
| 1c | Age: 40-49 years old | -0.2652 | 0.2907 | 5c | Length of physical activity: 4-6 years | -0.3064 | -0.3085 |
| 6a | Participation in physical education classes | -0.2287 | -0.1063 | 4a | Health self-evaluation: very good | -0.8266 | -0.2388 |
| 2c | Education: post-secondary | -0.2220 | -0.0408 | 6b | Participation in out-of-class activities | -0.6243 | -0.1136 |
| 5b | Length of physical activity: 2-3 years | 0.0260 | 0.5515 | 6a | Participation in physical education classes | -0.2287 | -0.1063 |
| 3b | Material situation: good | 0.1889 | 0.0015 | 2c | Education: post-secondary | -0.2220 | -0.0408 |
| 7b | Physical fitness self-evaluation: medium | 0.1956 | 0.3170 | 3b | Material situation: good | 0.1889 | 0.0015 |
| 4b | Health self-evaluation: good | 0.2246 | 1.1470 | 7c | Physical fitness self-evaluation: low | 1.5204 | 0.1233 |
| 1d | Age: 50-59 years old | 0.2392 | -0.6694 | 4c | Health self-evaluation: average | 0.2650 | 0.1255 |
| 4c | Health self-evaluation: average | 0.2650 | 0.1255 | 1a | Age: 20-29 years old | -0.4291 | 0.1513 |
| 2b | Education: secondary | 0.4274 | 0.1578 | 2b | Education: secondary | 0.4274 | 0.1578 |
| 5a | Length of physical activity: 1 year | 0.4841 | 0.5598 | 6c | Involvement in sport at competition level | 0.5783 | 0.1911 |
| 2a | Education: pre-secondary | 0.5512 | -0.6543 | 3a | Material situation: very good | -0.5155 | 0.2677 |
| 6c | Involvement in sport at competition level | 0.5783 | 0.1911 | 1c | Age: 40-49 years old | -0.2652 | 0.2907 |
| 1e | Age: 60-75 years old | 1.0918 | -0.9574 | 7b | Physical fitness self-evaluation: medium | 0.1956 | 0.3170 |
| 4d | Health self-evaluation: poor | 1.1294 | -0.7582 | 5b | Length of physical activity: 2-3 years | 0.0260 | 0.5153 |
| 3c | Material situation: bad | 1.1458 | -1.0918 | 5a | Length of physical activity: 1 year | 0.4841 | 0.5598 |
| 7c | Physical fitness self-evaluation: low | 1.5204 | 0.1233 | 1b | Age: 30-39 years old | -0.2985 | 0.6298 |
| 4e | Health self-evaluation: very poor | 1.6890 | -1.2048 | 4b | Health self-evaluation: good | 0.2246 | 1.1470 |
It was found that high physical fitness self-evaluation (7a) was reported by women who also rated their health as very good (4a) and had been engaging in exercise for 4-6 years (5c) and 7 or more years (5d) (cf. c2 test results). These subjects were 20 to 49 years old (1a, 1b, 1c). They were characterized by a post-secondary education (2c) and a very good material situation (3a). In the past they had participated in physical education classes (6b) and out-of-class or out-of-school sporting activities (6a) (cf. c2 test results).
Subjects with medium physical fitness self-evaluation (7b) had been exercising for 1 year (5a) or 2-3 years (5b). They assessed their state of health as average (4c) or good (4b), had a good material situation (3b), ranged in age from 50 to 59 years (1d) and had a secondary education (2b) or lower (2a). In the past they had been involved in sports at competition level (6c) (cf. c2 test results).
Low physical fitness self-evaluation (7c) was characteristic of subjects who rated their health as poor (4d) or very poor (4e), had a bad material situation (3c) and were over 60 years old (1e) (cf. c2 test results). It was not associated with any of the groups. These relations are confirmed by the distances between the analysed variables in Fig. 1.
Discussion
Adults´ physical activity is often determined by means of questionnaire surveys. Different kinds of activities are included in physical activity: job-related physical activity, activity involved in commuting to work, performing everyday household chores, and taking exercise during leisure time [7, 12, 13, 21, 22, 23]. Research described in the literature has focused mainly on determining the subjects´ physical activity they engaged in on the previous day [24], in the previous week [25], in a typical week [26], or in the previous year [27].
Research into physical activity and its meaning for lifestyle necessarily requires systematic voluntary behaviour. Therefore, in this study, only women whose physical activity was not compulsory were included. The purposeful selection of females with 1-year or longer exercise history enabled the recognition of factors determining self-evaluation of physical fitness and health in relation to the length of time that the subjects had been exercising.
Physical fitness self-evaluation was influenced by age, education and material situation. Higher physical fitness self-evaluation was also reported by women who had previously participated in out-of-class and out-of-school sporting activities, had been involved in sports at competition level and had engaged in physical activity in adult life. The obtained results are borne out by other research [7, 8, 16, 17, 18, 28].
Physically active females´ health self-evaluation was determined by the following factors: age, education and material situation. Similar results were obtained in other studies [7, 11, 12, 13, 16, 30]. Also, it was observed that married women self-rated their health higher (as very good, good or average) [9], and subjects who had previously participated in out-of-class and out-of-school sporting activities believed their health was very good [17, 18, 19]. Females engaging in physical activity in adult life for 4-6 and 7 plus years more often evaluated their health as very good. Positive influence of physical activity on health self-evaluation was also observed in other studies [7, 8, 12, 14, 15, 16, 28, 30].
As a result of this investigation it was revealed that women who had been engaging in exercise for 4-6 and 7 plus years more often rated their physical fitness as high and their health as very good. Other studies [8, 17, 28] also showed reciprocal influence of physical fitness self-evaluation and health self-evaluation.
Conclusions
1. Women´s high physical fitness self-evaluation was determined by the following factors: age under 50 years, post-secondary education, very good or good material situation, previous participation in out-of-class and out-of-school sporting activities or involvement in sport at competition level, and current physical activity lasting for 4-6 or 7 plus years.
2. Health was self-rated as very good by females who were under 50 years of age, married, post-secondary educated, in a very good or good material situation, reporting previous participation in out-of-class or out-of-school sporting activities and current physical activity continuing for 4-6 or 7 plus years.
3. There is a need to widely increase physical activity levels among sedentary adults by creating exercise programmes available for women, with their ages, material situations, family situations, diverse needs and motor abilities taken into account.
Piśmiennictwo
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